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After the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, Dr. Najibullah was placed as the head of KHAD, the Afghan version of the KGB. It was KHAD's task to eradicate the opposition, and provide military intelligence. As head of KHAD, Dr. Najibullah was known for barbarism, and brutality. KHAD was set up with extensive Soviet assistance. Like, Babrak Karmal, Dr. Najibullah was a member of the Parcham faction of the PDPA. Eventually, in 1986, after replacing Babrak Karmal, the Soviety Union installed Dr. Najibullah as President. He remained president for 6 years, until Mujahideen forces finally defeated him in 1992. Prevented from fleeing the country, he took refuge in the UN compound in Kabul. He lived in the compound until September 1996, when Taliban troops captured the city from Ahmad Shah Masood. When Kabul was captured, the Taliban almost immediately executed Dr. Najibullah and his brother, then they hanged their lifeless bodies in the center of the city. Dr. Najibullah was born in 1947, and had a degree in Medicine from Kabul University.

January 1992 - AFGHANISTAN

Major change in Pakistan's - Afghan policy Isolation of Hekmatyar faction

On Jan. 27 the Pakistan government announced for the first time its full support for the UN peace plan and the conference, and called upon the mujaheddin to follow its lead. The apparent modification of Pakistan's Afghan policy reflected the change in military leadership which had taken place in mid-1991.

Gen. Asif Nawaz Janjua, Chief of Staff since August 1991, had moved swiftly to alter the pro-Hekmatyar strategy of his predecessor Gen. Mirza Aslam Beg. In early January 1992 Gen. Nawaz made clear his intention to promote a peaceful settlement of the conflict, attending a meeting in Rome with representatives of ex-King Zahir Shah (an initiative which was condemned by Hekmatyar). Nawaz then forced the resignation of Hekmatyar's main patron within the Pakistan military, Gen. Hammed Gul, as corps commander in Multan. Gul, a former chief of Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) until 1989, had continued since that time to play a major role in determining Pakistan's Afghan policy.

Gen. Nawaz also apparently warned the current ISI head, Gen. Assad Durrani, to halt covert aid to all mujaheddin factions. Commentators noted that Hekmatyar continued to enjoy the support of the Pakistan fundamentalist religious party, Jammat-i-Islami.

Another initiative, by Germany's Social Democratic Party, failed in its attempt to bring the warring parties together in a "workshop" in Bonn in late January. All parties to the Afghan conflict had been invited to talks, which were postponed after disagreements arose between the rival groups over the conference.

May 1991 - AFGHANISTAN

Acceptance of UN peace plan

On May 27 President Najibullah announced that his government would accept a ceasefire with the mujaheddin in order to allow the implementation of a UN peace plan.

The offer of a truce followed a statement broadcast on Kabul radio on May 22 saying that the government had accepted the terms of a comprehensive peace settlement set out by the UN Secretary-General Javier Pérez de Cuéllar on May 21. The plan envisaged a ceasefire between the mujaheddin and government forces; a cessation of arms supplies by all countries involved in the conflict; an end to all external interference; and the right of Afghans to choose their own government.

In a speech on Kabul radio Najibullah said that he had ordered all provincial governors and local organizations to declare a ceasefire in their areas provided the mujaheddin agreed to abide by it.

On May 23 the head of the Hezb-e Islami, Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, rejected the UN plan, saying that there was no question of accepting a settlement under the Najibullah regime. The Prime Minister of the Pakistan-based Afghan Interim Government (AIG), Abdur-Rabbur Rasul Sayaf, dismissed the plan as an "affront" to the memory of the 1,500,000 Afghans who had died during 12 years of civil war. On May 28 the president of the AIG, Seghbatullah Mujjaddedi, also rejected the government's truce offer, saying that "if Najibullah is there, there can be no ceasefire".

The latest UN peace plan followed proposals unveiled on May 10 by ex-king Zahir Shah which called for the establishment of a national committee including mujaheddin leaders, free elections and a parliamentary system.

Reported cessation of US aid

Reports on May 13, quoting United States government officials, said that the US administration had sought no new funding for the mujaheddin in its proposed budget for 1992.

Although final proposals had not yet been made public, it was understood that the US administration was "tiring" of the war. On May 13 a mujaheddin spokesman said in Peshawar that "we are determined to continue the fight... with or without aid from the Americans".

Resignation of AIG minister

It was reported on May 5 that the Interior Minister in the AIG and a member of the Hezb-e Islami, Yunus Khales, had resigned after accusing his colleagues of "complicity" with the Kabul-based government.

March 1988 - AFGHANISTAN

Extension of ceasefire - Invitation to specified opposition groups to form coalition government

Dr. Najibullah announced on July 14 a six-month extension of the government's unilateral ceasefire (introduced on Jan. 15-). In his speech he defined what he termed 'the other side of national reconciliation', listing those opposition forces with which the government would consider sharing power in a future coalition government.

His list of potentially acceptable power-sharing partners included the pre-revolutionary King of Afghanistan, Mohammad Zahir Shah (who was exiled in Italy), and his supporters; (ii) the 'moderate' (as opposed to the Sunni 'fundamentalist') mujaheddin groups; (iii) 'social and political figures of the past regimes'; (iv) 'heads of the armed groups and tribes'; democratic left-wing organizations; and (vi) commanders of the opposition armed groups operating inside Afghanistan. Dr Najibullah also specified that the above groups might be offered posts including Vice-President, Vice-Prime Minister, several ministries, and offices within the Supreme Court. He stated that 'even the position of Chairman of the Council of Ministers can be discussed by the forces of coalition under the condition of coalition'.

The question of ex-King Zahir Shah's possible involvement in a future Afghan government arose frequently during 1987. Throughout the year he reportedly held separate and secret meetings with all parties involved in negotiations, but in his official statements he consistently refused to share power with Dr Najibullah. The main mujaheddin alliance (the seven-member Islamic Unity of the Mujaheddin of Afghanistan) was openly divided on the ex-King's role, the 'moderate' groups generally favouring his involvement and the 'fundamentalist' groups opposing it.

August 1973 - AFGHANISTAN

Monarchy overthrown in Military Coup. - Proclamation of Republic

In the absence of King Mohammed Zahir Shah (59) in Italy for health reasons, his Government was overthrown on July 17 by troops led by Lieutenant-General Sardar Mohammed Daud Khan (64), a cousin and brother-in-law of the King.

At about 2 a.m. Army units consisting of about 50 young officers and 300 soldiers with tanks surrounded Government buildings and occupied the airport at Kabul. Fighting took place at several buildings, including police headquarters and the home of Sardar Abdul Wali Khan, the King's son-in-law and commander of the Kabul garrison, who defended himself but--according to official sources--was captured with his wife, Princess Bilqis. The new authorities later claimed that the only other persons arrested at the time of the coup were Dr. Mohammed Musa Shafiq, the Prime Minister, and General Khan Mohammed, the Minister of Defence. In a broadcast at 5 a.m. it was announced that the situation in Kabul was calm.

General Daud, in a proclamation broadcast a few hours later, declared martial law and stated that the object of his coup was to put an end to the "corrupt and effete" Government under the monarchy which, with its "pseudo-democracy based on personal and class interests", had taken Afghanistan "to the edge of the abyss". He and his friends, he said, would set up a republican system which would "institute a real democracy", "safeguard the rights of the people" and be "in accord with the genuine spirit of Islam".

General Daud, who had married the King's sister, held a prominent position at the royal court and, as Prime Minister from 1953 to 1963, had wielded practically dictatorial powers. During his period of office he had expressed support for the cause of Pakhtoonistan--i.e. the unity of the areas inhabited by Pathans on both sides of Afghanistan's border with Pakistan--which had led to the temporary rupture of Afghanistan's diplomatic, consular and trade relations with Pakistan in 1961. In 1963 the King had dismissed him from the office of Prime Minister after he had reaffirmed his conviction, already expressed earlier, that the country needed "reforms in its social structure and a parliamentary democracy".

On July 18 General Daud, who had renounced his princely rank, was proclaimed President of the Republic, and it was also announced that he would be Prime Minister and hold the portfolios of Defence and Foreign Affairs. The new President subsequently announced the formation of a Central Committee, which would act as the country's Government and was composed of unknown Army officers and a few civilians previously associated with him.

Radio Kabul announced on July 18 that the revolutionary Government was in full control of the country.

Contradicting reports from news agencies outside Afghanistan that religious leaders had appealed to tribesmen to rally in support of the King, Radio Kabul claimed on July 20 that the abolition of the monarchy had been "accepted with satisfaction" by religious leaders.

Dr. Karim, Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs in the previous Government, summoned the ambassadors of all countries accredited in Kabul on July 18 to demand the immediate recognition by their Governments of the newly-established Republic, which, he said, was anxious to continue the country's policy of non-alignment and to entertain good relations with all countries."

De facto recognition was extended to the new regime by the Soviet Union and India on July 19; by Western Germany on July 20; by Bangladesh, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Eastern Germany, Hungary, Iran, Mongolia, Pakistan, Turkey, South Yemen and Yugoslavia on July 21; and by Britain on July 22. The United States indicated on the same day that it would maintain its previous close relations with Kabul. Recognition was later accorded by other States, including Japan on July 27 and China on July 28.

After a public rally had been held in Kabul on July 21 in support of Afghanistan's claim to the areas of Pakistan inhabited by Pathans, President Bhutto of Pakistan declared on July 26 that his Government would scrupulously adhere to the good relations his country had for long enjoyed with Afghanistan, but added that Pakistan was "quite capable" of defending itself against possible Afghan claim to the North-West Frontier Province.

Of Afghanistan's immediate neighbours, the People's Republic of China was the last to accord recognition to the new republic. Chinese aid to Afghanistan was said to have amounted to about $72,000,000, compared with up to $450,000,000 furnished by the U.S.A. and nearly $1,500,000,000 by the Soviet Union since 1953, and fears had been expressed in China that the U.S.S.R. would, as a result of the coup, extend its influence southwards, which might constitute an increasing threat to the integrity of Pakistan.

President Daud categorically denied on July 24 that the Soviet Union or any other foreign Power had been involved in the overthrow of the monarchy, and emphasized that his country's future would be decided by the Afghans alone.

General Daud said that the coup had been "in every sense of the word a bloodless one" and had enjoyed the support of the Army and the people, in particular the intellectuals and the young; he admitted, however, the death of eight persons during the coup--five policemen, two soldiers and a tank officer. He foreshadowed the "introduction of basic social reforms" and of a new and democratic Constitution. For the Pakhtoonistan problem, he said, a "peaceful and amicable solution" would be sought.

The dissolution of Parliament was officially announced in a decree of July 28, while the powers of the Supreme Court were at the same time transferred to a council set up within the Ministry of Justice.

December 1964 - AFGHANISTAN

New Constitution approved by Grand Assembly. - Resolution on "Pakhtoonistan."

The new Constitution for Afghanistan, which had been announced in August, was approved at a meeting of the Loe Jirga (Grand Assembly) held in Kabul from Sept. 9-19.

The Loe Jirga, which had been summoned only five times before during the last 40 years to consider major questions of internal or foreign policy, consists of 450 members. They comprise the 170 members of the National Assembly; an equal number elected especially for the present Jirga, one from each Assembly constituency; all members of the Cabinet and the Senate; the five Justices of the Supreme Court; 30 members, including six women, nominated by the King; the seven members of the drafting committee which drew up the Constitution; and the 24 members of the advisory commission which considered and modified the first constitutional draft.

The last Loe Jirga took place in 1955, when the Government sought and obtained support for its commitment to the cause of "Pakhtoonistan." While previous sessions of the Loe Jirga had been held in public, the present one took place in camera after it had been opened in public session by King Muhammad Zahir Shah.

In his opening speech King Zahir explained that, while there had been no alternative to royal rule in the troubled times of the past, the time was now ripe for instituting a constitutional monarchy in which the royal family should be separated from the Government.

The new Constitution of 128 Articles, which was discussed and voted on Article by Article, provided inter alia that the King would appoint the Prime Minister, who need not be a member of the Legislature and could choose his Ministers either from members of the Legislature or from outside; if a member of the Legislature was chosen, he would have to resign his seat. When a Government had been formed its members and policy would be presented by the Prime Minister to the Lower House, from which he would have to obtain a vote of confidence.

The Government's term would be the same as that of the Legislature, namely four years, but the King would retain power to dissolve Parliament earlier; in the latter case new elections must be held within three months of the dissolution.

The two Houses of Parliament would be the Lower House (House of the People), elected by universal, secret, and direct vote; and the Upper House (House of Elders), one-third of whose members would be nominated by the King "from among well-informed and experienced persons," some elected by the provincial councils (themselves elected), and the remainder directly elected. The Loe Jirga would continue to function but would consist of both Houses of Parliament sitting together and the 29 chairmen of the provincial councils; it would be hold if there was uncertainty about the royal succession, on questions of impeachment of Ministers, and in similar critical situations. The King would continue to wield ultimate political power.

The most important section of the Constitution is Article 24, which bars any member of the royal family from participating in the Government--affecting inter alios Prince Muhammad Daoud, who had been Prime Minister for 10 years until 1963. The Article was approved on Sept. 10, with only one dissenting vote, after amendments had been added which also barred members of the Royal family from participating in party politics and ensured that they could not renounce their status.

It was also laid down that: Pushtu and Dari (Parsee) would enjoy parity as the languages of the country; (ii) where no specific provision existed in the Constitution or the laws, the courts would be guided by the basic tenets of Islam; (iii) the Constitution would not come fully into effect for a year after its promulgation, the Government being empowered in the meantime to draft Ordinances to be approved subsequently by the newly elected Parliament. The first elections would be held before the formation of political parties, the Constitution explicitly stating that the law governing the formation and conduct of parties would be submitted to the new parliament.

On the final day of its session the Loe Jirga also approved a Government-sponsored resolution on the "Pakhtoonistan" issue. The resolution referred to the "religious, national, and historical duty" of the Afghans to support the rights of the Pathan people of Pakistan to self-determination, but added that Afghanistan was "waiting for the day when the issue of Pakhtoonistan will be settled on the basis of the true aspirations of the people and leaders of Pakhtoonistan."

The new Constitution came into force on Oct. 1, when it was endorsed by King Zahir Shah, and the old Parliament was dissolved on Oct.2.